Negative Outcomes from Portrayal of Young Women in the Media Essay

When one thinks of media, one tends to relate media to television, news, magazines, newspaper articles, and so on. Many people do not think of media is something that portrays negative effects on young women. However, young women are more susceptible to lower self-esteem resulting in eating disorders or depression more today than ever before. The media projects negative and undermining images of women and one does not have to look very hard to realize this. The media projects images of unrealistic women who only look the way they do because of plastic surgery or airbrushing techniques. The media has much greater effects on young girls than anything else in our culture today. Our society has created an environment so obsessed with image that those who have the power give disapproval for being overweight, and give approval for being thin. This has created a generation of women so self conscious about their body that it starts to affect their health in many different ways. Where Portrayal Starts On average, boys and girls spend anywhere from two to six hours a day being exposed to television, the internet, magazine articles, video games, and so on. (4) This is a massive amount of time spent over the years viewing media. With time, all the advertisements become normal to us and we tend to accept what is being shown on the television. Some of this is perfectly fine. Watching televison, researching the internet, and magazine articles help one receive information. Although much of this information is a learning opportunity, many do not take the time to consider the negative affects media does have. Over time one starts to see repetitive advertisements and start to tune them out, which then we adapt to this, and it b... ...d how they really are in a positive way. Final Thoughts The outcome of how media effects young teenage girls is a grave concern that keeps growing. Campaigns and advertisements that put pressures on these young girls to be thin are continuously growing. These constant pressures to be thin and beautiful are drawing them away from being themselves. Girls are now starting to resort to harmful eating habits and body dissatisfaction at a young age. These unhealthy habits will start to ruin our young women, and will take an ultimate toll on our future. Women are beautiful the way they are. Our society does not need to take away from the happiness that one has by using computer imaging to bring one down. In a perfect world everyone would look the same and have the same beauty, but it is not a perfect world, which then makes everyone beautiful in their own way.

Downloading From The Internet: Should it be Allowed? :: Music Internet Computers Essays

Downloading From The Internet: Should it be Allowed? Amy Harmon and John Schwartz’s article, â€Å"The Problem With Sharing†, published in the November 17 issue of New York Times Upfront, discusses problems with downloading files from the Internet. The article explains that there are many problems with downloading music from the Internet for free. The article states that the attitude all across America is that people feel that anything that is on the Internet is considered free. Most any Internet file sharing is illegal. The music has started to sue people who share files. â€Å"Last month, the industry followed up on its September lawsuits against 261 people accused of illegally downloading music by notifying another 204 people that they would be next† (Harmon, Amy and John Schwartz par. 5). Downloading does not fairly pay artists or owners of the material being downloaded. â€Å"I presume the problem these laws are having some impact, but they’re not solving the problem,† says Senator Norm Coleman, a Minnesota Republican (Harmon, Amy and John Schwartz par. 7). The article also states that the music industry says that downloading a song from the Internet is like stealing a CD from a store. The American public seems to think that it’s just like recording a song of the radio. The copyright laws says that it is legal to record and distribute copies of a song, as long as they are purchased, to family and friends but its illegal to distribute them to strangers (Harmon, Amy and John Schwartz par. 9). The article says that earlier thing like radio stations were being protested by artists until they got paid royalties for radio stations playing their songs. There are some musicians and some small record companies that support downloading because they say it gets artists music at no cost to them. There are several new sites like itunes that sell downloadable music for a cheap price (Harmon, Amy and John Schwartz p. 19). The article states that they’re several downloading sites like Kazaa that let people share files for free. The ages of the users vary. According to Nielsen/Net Ratings 3.9million people of all ages used Kazaa during the week of September 15 (Harmon, Amy and John Schwartz p. 20). â€Å"As long as technology makes the illegal behavior so easy- and when for many people, it doesn’t feel illegal—the record companies will need to do more than sue† (Harmon, Amy and John Schwartz p.

Creativity in Literacy Practices

Creativity in Literacy Practices: A TEXTUAL AND CONTEXTUAL APPROACH by Agatha Xaris Villa INTRODUCTION AT PRESENT, THERE ARE A NUMBER OF APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF LINGUISTIC CREATIVITY. THEY DIFFER IN THE WAY THE WAY THAT THEY CONCEPTUALIZE WHAT COUNTS AS CREATIVENESS OR ‘LITERARINESS’ IN LANGUAGE AS WELL AS IN THE METHODS THEY USE TO IDENTIFY AND ANALYZE CREATIVITY IN EVERYDAY LANGUAGE.This essay begins by discussing and exploring the premises of an analysis of creativity at text level following a textual approach to literacy and creativity; assessing the extent to which it is effective in identify creativity in literacy practices such as diaries, letters and graffiti.However, I would like to continue by presenting the argument that while literacy practices do offer opportunities for creativity at text level, the study and identification of creativity in literacy practices may be more productive when studied with a broader perspective – one that goes beyond the limits of the text and considers the influence of context in the production, reception and processing of texts, literary practices and creativity. Creativity in literacy practices at text level LITERACY IS AN IMPORTANT ASPECT OF EVERYDAY LIFE AND IS A PART OF EVEN OUR MOST MUNDANE SOCIAL PRACTICES.WHILE THE ROLE WHICH LITERACY PLAYS IN SITUATIONS MAY VARY IN IMPORTANCE, IN THE CONTEXT OF LITERACY EVENTS WHERE LITERACY PLAYS A SIGNIFICANT ROLE, INDIVIDUALS DEVELOP CHARACTERISTIC AND PATTERNED WAYS OF USING AND INTERACTING WITH TEXTS. THESE HABITUAL PATTERNS HOLD DIFFERENT MEANING AND VALUES FOR INDIVIDUALS AND ARE WHAT WE REFER TO AS LITERACY PRACTICES. Creativity in literacy practices at the level of the text may be identified by focusing on special linguistic forms that stand out in texts. This pproach is modeled after what Carter (1999) called an inherency perspective which perceives creativity as being ‘inherent’ in the creative uses of language intrinsic in text. Th e focus is on the writer’s skill in the manipulation of linguistic forms that constitute text on the phonological, grammatical and semantic level. Roman Jakobson (1960), one of the well-known advocates of this approach, was concerned with the ‘poetic function of language’ which was believed to be in close relation to literariness in text.He argued that the poetic function of language involves the ‘foregrounding’ of language forms which have the ability to draw attention to themselves – making a noticeable impact on the reader. Foregrounding results from stylistic choices which may come as (1) deviations from the norms of everyday language (e. g. the use of different writing systems, lexis and ‘figurative language’ such as metaphor and simile or (2) prominent patterns of parallelisms in phonology, grammar and semantics (e. g. meter, rhyme, etc. (Maybin and Pearce, 2006, p. 6 – 9). By highlighting the ‘poetic usages of language’, we can identify creativity in diaries at the text level. The metaphoric descriptions and dramatic portrayal of entities and events in diaries are ways in which individuals attempt to explore their feelings regarding their experience of the ‘real world’ that are often difficult to describe. In addition, repeated structures and rhythms are commonly used in diaries as a form of emphasizing points in the writer’s diary entry.Such examples of ‘poetic language’ may also be identified in letters. In Margaretta Jolly’s (1997) study of war letters, she states that letters are probably ‘the most common form of creative writing. ’ Her examples point out the creative way in which letter-writers are able to use language forms such as imagery, metaphoric and rhetorical devices as well as parallelism (more commonly related to literature) for the purpose increasing the text’s emotional and persuasive impact and highlighti ng contrast and subtleties of meaning (Maybin, 2006, p. 72). The â€Å"art of graffiti† is a long-standing tradition with the ability to exhibit creativity at text level both in its traditional and embellished form. Creativity is seen in the use of rhythmic repetition, puns and contradictory voices (as in parody and irony), the use of non-standard spelling and punctuation (usually in line with a particular artistic style) and the use of text and decoration for aesthetic and communicative purposes.While it is possible to be able to identify creativity in literacy practices at text level, this approach is somewhat limited because it fails to take into account: (1) the interactive features and functions of literacy practice, (2) the influence of its socio-cultural and historical context and more importantly (3) the creativity in language practices that is inherent and emergent from social practices in particular contexts.Therefore, I suggest that a better and more efficient way to identify and evaluate creativity in literacy practices, is one that approaches literacy from a more contextual approach, more specifically from an ethnographic perspective. Creativity and literacy practices from an ethnographic approach According to the ethnographic approach defined by Papen and Tusting (2006, p. 312-359), creativity refers the production of something ‘new’ and ‘original’. In written language, creativeness should not be perceived as a decontextualised, individual activity or as being entirely shaped by context.It should be seen as being dependent on and emergent from the creative literacy practices through which texts are constructed because they are shaped by people, who in pursuit of their own goals and purposes, actively draw on the interactional, contextual and socio-cultural possibilities available in the particular social situation they are embedded. Literacy practices are inherently creative in and of themselves. The ethnographic perspective takes into account the broader social-political context within which creativity is located and through their examination of iteracy practices and texts, advocates of the ethnographic approach found three major characteristics of creativity in writing. To begin, by focusing on people’s literacy practices rather than just texts, they noted that creative texts are produced as a result of interactive collaboration. Diaries, although written by a single person, emerge from an individual’s account and reflection of events and various conversations and interactions with people.Diaries and journals are dialogic practices wherein the writer addresses and responds to a ‘reader’ and have the potential to be re-contextualized in different publications to address a wider readership (Maybin, 2006, p. 269) This dialogical aspect is more evident in web blogs or online journals in which people often (1) write in response to the entries of others, (2) write entr ies addressed to others and (3) write with the expectation and even the goal to get as much response from others. Maybin (2006, p. 73) tells us that letters are even more intensely dialogic in nature. I believe that letters are best viewed as mediums of ‘correspondence’ wherein we present written versions of our personal experience, relationships and identities in relation to an assumed reader who then responds by confirming or questioning. Letters are shaped by and inspire collaborative practices An interesting characteristic of graffiti that I believe exemplifies the collaborative nature of creativity is the way that graffiti attracts graffiti (Macdonald, 2006).A graffiti-covered wall may look like vandalism to law-enforcers or a rather threatening cacophony of ‘names’ to the common passerby but it constitutes a symbolic exchange between members of a sub-group. In the world of graffiti, tags located on the same space are often interpreted in relation to t heir positioning and proximity to each other. They may be viewed as a sign of respect, acknowledgement or outright disregard – a reflection of the intensely competitive nature of this practice.In addition to the collaborative nature of creative literary practices, the ethnographic approach pays careful attention to the influence of the context of reading and writing in the development of creative practices (Papen and Tusting, 2006, p. 320). They argued that in any given opportunity, there is particular set of possibilities and constraints that provides the opportunity for creativity. This involves affordances (i. e. properties of the environment, arising from its material characteristics which may be positive or negative depending on the individual) from new forms of technology, discourse conventions as well as inter-textual and material resources available to producers of text. An important thing to note is while possibilities may determine what is possible in any given cont ext, the possibilities associated with a setting do not determine what is created.For example, while people may be able to describe events, sights and even people through the practice of diaries and letters, there are abstractions such as feelings and intensely traumatic situations (such as in war) that are far more difficult to describe and articulate. In order to overcome this type of ‘constraint’ on expression, writers make use of metaphoric language and parallelisms, enabling them to represent their feelings and experiences in ‘words’ that their readers may be able to relate to. Creativity may also emerge from socially-constrained situations.Graffiti emerged from the same socially and economically impoverished areas in America where gangs are notoriously prominent. Because graffiti is an act of illegitimacy and opposition, graffiti artists face the constant risk of being caught by the police or by rival gangs each time they make a ‘tag’ or do a ‘piece’. But this high-risk and intensely competitive literacy practice is a stage on which young men may choose an identity of their own making, present it in the style of their choice and regain control of their own ‘fate’ – free from the constraints of their socio-economic backgrounds (Mcdonald, 2006).Social, economic or technological changes may result in the introduction of new affordance and constraints to any given context (Papen and Tusting, 2006, p. 325). For example, the popularization of the internet brought about the development of Computer Mediated Communication (CMC), resulting in the creation of new literary genres and changes in literacy practices. According to Kress (2003), creativity may be perceived as inherent in CMC using the two concepts of ‘transformation’ and ‘transduction’.Transformation is the way that the text producers manipulate the forms of signs within a mode to suit their needs and intere sts. Transduction, on the other hand, refers to the movement of ‘semiotic material’ between modes where meaning configured in one mode is moved to another. Online diaries, known as online ‘blogs, perform the same function as traditional diaries and even employ the same linguistic forms. However, bloggers now have access to a greater degree of interactive, inter-textual and multi-modal resources.Whereas in the past, writers creatively used language to express their thoughts and feelings through metaphors and similes, bloggers can now make use of pictures, videos, music, emoticons, avatars and (through hyper-linking) other texts to represent themselves and their lives online. Similarly, the literacy practice of letter-writing is far from extinct in today’s modern ear but has taken up a new form – that is, electronic mail (e-mail). As a medium of communication, email has enabled cross-cultural communication and the creation of online relationships and à ¢â‚¬Ëœnetworking’ communities.Finally, the ethnographic perspective sees creative literacy practices in everyday life as being embedded in socio-cultural practices situated in institutional, political and economic structures. These structures are in a constant state of movement and change therefore taking on a historical perspective towards literacy practices is a necessity. Based on observation and study, changes in socio-economic conditions are often accompanied by changes in the linguistic and semiotic means available to a community as in the case of the following account of changes to a Nepali rural community Papen and Tusting, 2006, p. 328). The 1980s was a time of great social and economic change in Junigau, Nepal. In 1983, the village set up its first high school, providing greater access to education for men and women – resulting in great changes to the literacy practices used by the young. A new form of ‘prolonged courtship’ (i. e. , love-letter w riting) had become increasingly popular among the youth, improving gender relations and changing marriage practices (as the young were becoming more resistant towards arranged marriages).The way in which these love-letters encapsulated new ideas on personal identity and individual agency which held no cultural precedent in their village is an example of how social and cultural change is closely related to the creation of new literacy practices (Papen and Tusting, 2006, p. 328) Conclusion ANALYZING CREATIVITY AT TEXT LEVEL, ALLOWED US TO IDENTIFY CREATIVENESS IN TEXTS AS IS REVEALED BY THE USE OF POETIC LANGUAGE OR LINGUISTIC FORMS COMMONLY ASSOCIATED WITH LITERATURE.THIS APPROACH HOWEVER WAS VERY MUCH LIMITED DUE MAINLY BY THE NARROWNESS OF THE INHERENCY MODEL’S DEFINITION OF WHAT CONSTITUTES AS CREATIVITY AS WELL AS TO ITS LACK OF CONSIDERATION OF CONTEXTUAL FACTORS AND THE INHERENCY OF CREATIVITY IN LITERACY PRACTICES. In taking an ethnographic/historical perspective, chara cteristics of creativity that are inherent in literacy practices become more salient. Through our understanding of the three characteristics of creativity in literacy practices, we’ve identified creativity beyond the level of the text.This contextual approach showed us how creativity is exhibited in literacy practices in the way that (1) texts are read and used, how the writer interacts with other individuals;(2) how people are able to creatively use language in relation to the possibilities and constraints available in particular contexts and finally, (3) individuals are able to adapt and respond to changes in discourse practices and socio-cultural conditions. References CARTER, R. (1999). ‘COMMON LANGUAGE: CORPUS, CREATIVITY AND COGNITION’, LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, 8(3), P. 196-216 Jakobson, J. (1960). Closing statement: linguistics and poetics’, in T. A. Sebeok (ed. ) Style in Language, MIT Press. Jolly, M. (1997). ‘Everyday Letters and Literary F orm: Coresspondence from the Second World War’, unpublished MPhil, University of Sussex. Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the new Media Age. London and New York, Routledge. Macdonald, N. (2006). Chapter 6. Reading B: ‘The spray-can is mighteier than the sword: graffiti writing and the construction of masculine identity’ in Maybin, J. and Swann, J. (eds) The art of English: everyday creativity. Palgrave Macmillan/The Open University, p. 293 – 302. Maybin, J. 2006)(Ed. ) Chapter 6 ‘Writing the self’, in Maybin, J. and Swann, J. (eds) The art of English: everyday creativity. Palgrave Macmillan/The Open University, p. 261 – 279. Maybin, J. and Pearce, M. (2006). Chapter 1 ‘Literature and creativity in English’ in Goodman, S. and O’Halloran, K. (eds) The art of English: literary creativity. Palgrave Macmillan/The Open University, p. 6-9. Papen, U. and Tusting, K. (2006). Chapter 7 ‘Literacies, collaboration and context ’ in Maybin, J. and Swann, J. (eds) The art of English: everyday creativity. Palgrave Macmillan/The Open University, p. 312 – 331.

Native American educational traditions passed Essay

Before contact with Europeans, Native Americans developed an effective system of informal education call aboriginal education. The system included transmitting knowledge, values, skills, attitudes, and dispositions to the next generation in real world settings such as the farm, at home, or on the hunting ground. Education was viewed as a way to beautify and sharpen the next generation and prepare them to take over the mantle of leadership. The purpose of education was for an immediate induction of the next generation into society and preparation for adulthood. Education was for introducing society with all its institutions, taboos, mores, and functions to the individual. Also, education was intended for making the individual a part of the totality of the social consciousness. Native American education delineated social responsibility, skill orientation, political participation, and spiritual and moral values. The cardinal goals of Native American education were to develop the individual’s latent physical skills and character, inculcate respect for elders and those in authority in the individual, and help the individual acquire specific vocational training (Franklin, 1979). Native American education was also for developing a healthy attitude toward honest labor, developing a sense of belonging and encouraging active participation in community activities. Both boys and girls had equal access to education. Boys were taught by their fathers, uncles, grandfathers, and other male elders. Girls were instructed by their mothers, aunts, grandmothers, female elders and other members of their families. Sometimes, both boys and girls received instruction at the feet of either male or female elders (Mould, 2004). There were barely any dropouts and the community ensured that every child received a full education. Youth appropriate information and knowledge was not hidden from any child. Several teaching strategies, including storytelling, were utilized to pass on knowledge and culture to the youth. In fact, Mould (2004) believed that storytelling was a sacred and vital part of a Native American youth’s education. Knowledge and culture were passed down orally, â€Å"crafted into stories that would instruct, inspire, provoke, question, challenge, and entertain† (Mould, 2004). Often, the youth would gather together to listen to the elders as they related the knowledge once entrusted to them when they were children (Mould, 2004). The philosophy of education was that of the development of the individual as well as the whole society (Johnson et al. , 2005). Educational philosophy also emphasized the importance of nature. The pursuit of knowledge and happiness were subordinated to a respect for the whole universe. According to Johnson, knowledge was equated with an understanding of one’s place in the natural order of things and educators were encouraged to study and teach the physical and social world by examining the natural relationships that exist among things, animals, and humans. Studying ideas in the abstract or as independent entities was not considered as important as understanding the relationships among ideas and physical reality. The essential components of an educational experience included hands on learning, making connections, holding discussions, taking field trips, and celebrations of the moment (Johnson et al. , 2005). These highly effective teaching methods were utilized by adults to transmit culture to or educate the next generation. The youth learned at their own pace and barely competed against one another. The youth were taught to be supportive and nurturing of one another in the learning process. As a result of the holistic education that all youth were exposed to in the period before their contact with Europeans, there were barely any miseducated Native American children. At the time of European contact with Native Americans (from 1492), an advanced system of informal/aboriginal education had been developed by Native Americans as noted earlier. That system was misunderstood by Europeans who thus made efforts to impose their formal system of education on Native Americans. After contact with Europeans, formal education for Native Americans was initially conducted by missionaries and private individuals until the 1830s. There were increased European government efforts to formally educate Native Americans after the passage of the Indian Removal Act (1830) which forced Native Americans onto reservations (Tozer 2009). The purpose of formal education of Native Americans, as far as Europeans were concerned, was forced acculturation or assimilation to European culture (Tozer 2009). The aim of the European system of education was to â€Å"civilize†, Christianize, and Europeanize the Native Americans in European-controlled schools. To achieve this purpose and aim, many Native American children were forcibly removed from their homes and enrolled in European-controlled schools. By 1887, about 14,300 Native American children were enrolled in 227 schools run by the Bureau of Indian Affairs or by religious groups (Tozer 2009). The schools were operated based on an Anglo-conformity assimilationist approach. The Anglo-conformity assimilationist approach included the following: 1) Educating the Native Americans away from their culture due to the philosophy of Europeanization or Christianization or â€Å"civilizing† of the Native American through education; 2) Intensive efforts were made to destroy extant Native American cultures by excluding Native American cultures from the school curriculum; 3) Concerted efforts were made to prevent Native American students from following their own culture; and 4) Native American students were punished for speaking their native languages (Feagin & Feagin, 2003). This approach motivated European American educators to force Native American students into boarding schools where it was believed that it would be easier and much more effective to Europeanize, Christianize, and â€Å"civilize† them. Students were forced to dress like Europeans, convert to Christianity, and take European names. Students who refused to conform were severely punished. The effects of the Anglo-conformity assimilationist approach on Native Americans cannot be overemphasized. Many of them lost or became confused about their cultural identity. Some tended to know a lot more about European culture, history, philosophy, and languages than about their own culture, history, philosophy, and languages. Europeanization, Christianization and â€Å"civilizing† of Native Americans through formal education seriously undermined the very foundation of Native American cultures and alienated many Native Americans from their own cultures and environment. Formal education forced many Native Americans to absorb European lifestyles and led to individualism as well as serious weakening of traditional authority structure and kin group solidarity. Many Native Americans lost faith in their own cultures and civilizations and absorbed those of Europeans. Some have neither fully adopted European culture nor fully embraced Native American culture and consequently swing between the two in a state of cultural confusion. Eurocentric education has been a miseducation of Native Americans as has been for all minority groups in the United States. These and many other political, social and economic effects of formal education on Native Americans have permeated Native American cultures till today. European American teachers and administrators have blamed Native American educational problems on cultural differences. This is known as cultural deficit theory. According to cultural deficit theorists, disjuncture’s or differences or deficits between the culture of the home and the culture of the school are the reasons for the poor academic achievement of non-European students (Johnson et al. , 2005). European American schools focus only on the dominant culture and expect all students to operate as if they are members of the dominant culture, giving an advantage to students from the dominant group and a disadvantage to those from minority groups (Johnson et al., 2005). What cultural deficit theorists advocate is that students from minority groups, including Native American students, must reject their own cultural patterns and absorb European American cultural patterns in order to be successful in school. Thus, in an effort to assist their students to be high achievers in school, many European American teachers have attempted to make their students â€Å"less Native American† by educating them away from their own cultures and imposing Anglo-European culture on them. Many schools and textbooks exclude Native American experiences and their immeasurable contributions to this society and the rest of the world and provide little to nothing to assist Native American children identify with their own cultures. From the 1930s some boarding schools were replaced by day schools closer to reservations and a bilingual policy of educating Native American students in both Native American languages and the English language was discussed (Feagin & Feagin, 2003). Since the 1960s, organized protest has led to increased government involvement and aid for primary, adult, and vocational education for Native Americans on and off the reservations. Federal and local governments have focused more attention on local public schools (outside the reservations) and Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) schools in the reservations. For greater inclusion of Native Americans in their own education, Native American advisory boards have been organized in mainstream public schools. More Native Americans have been added to school faculty and staff. Native American art, dances, and languages have been included in the school curriculum. The central curriculum taught in both BIA and mainstream schools have remained the same from colonial times until recently. The curriculum indoctrinates Native American children with the same European American values as in the past (Feagin & Feagin, 2003). In many reservations today however, there are efforts to reverse this by teaching students in Native American languages and culture from the early years of their education. In the Choctaw Reservation in Choctaw, Mississippi for example, students are taught in the Chahta and English languages in the first three years of formal schooling and in the English language from the fourth grade onwards. Throughout their schooling to the high school level, they are taught and exposed to Choctaw culture and encouraged to speak the Chahta language in and outside of school. One of the essences of the Annual Choctaw Indian Fair is to educate both the youth and adults in Choctaw cultural practices and traditions and to transmit Choctaw culture to the next generation. The author of this article, who happens to be an African and from a continent which has had similar experiences as those of Native Americans, greatly applauds the new forms of formal education among Native Americans on the reservations, which include an integration of the Native American system before their contact with Europeans and aspects of the European system as a way of preserving what is left of Native American cultures, preparing contemporary Native American youth for their real world settings, and meeting the needs of Native Americans. The large scale migration of many Native Americans to the cities since the 1950s has led to a decline in the number of children in BIA schools. By the early 1990s less than ten percent (10%) of Native American children attended BIA schools (Feagin & Feagin, 2003). Today, most Native American children attend mainstream local public schools due to the fact that majority of Native Americans live off reservations with their children (United States Census Bureau, 2001). The mainstream educational system has however failed to meet the needs of Native American students. The failure stems from the absence of a Native American perspective in the curricula, the loss of Native American languages, the shift away from Native American spiritual values, and the racist and discriminatory activities of many European American teachers and administrators (Feagin & Feagin, 2003; Schaefer, 2004). Perhaps, mainstream educators could borrow the new forms of formal education being practiced on the reservations which seem to much better meet the needs of Native American students rather than continually imposing the Eurocentric system which has not worked for Native Americans. With regard to higher education, since the 1960s, many mainstream colleges have established Native American Studies centers to provide facilities for the study of Native American issues (Feagin & Feagin, 2003). By the late 1990s, more than 134,000 Native Americans were enrolled in colleges and universities throughout the United States (Schaeffer, 2004). Majority of the students attended predominantly European American public colleges and universities. Some of the students were not very successful due to the ingrained racist and discriminatory practices in those institutions. Consequently, many Native American students dropped out of those institutions. In general, Native American formal educational attainment has remained lower than that of the general population due to the Eurocentricity of the educational system. By 1990, less than two-thirds of Native Americans over the age of twenty-five were high school graduates compared to three-fourths of all Americans in that age range. Native American students in mainstream schools are disproportionately placed in special education classrooms. The proportion of Native American students who drop out after tenth-grade is 36%, the highest of any racial or ethnic group and more than twice that of European Americans (Schaeffer, 2004). In view of the aforementioned issues in education among Native Americans, a Department of Education Task Force organized in the late 1990s recommended the following for addressing Native American educational issues: implementation of multicultural curricula that inculcate respect for Native American history and culture, and establishment of programs that guarantee that Native American students learn English well. The task force assumed that if Native American students learn English very well then they will be successful in school, an assumption which is traced to the cultural deficit theory discussed above. Today, many Native American students attend Native American-controlled community colleges. The community colleges integrate Native American history and culture into courses. More attention is given to students and their cultures in the Native American-controlled educational institutions. Native Americans had established an effective educational system which ensured the smooth transmission of their cultures to the next generation before their contact with Europeans. The system included passing on of knowledge, values, attitudes, skills, and dispositions required for successful functioning of every individual in real world settings. Access to education was denied neither to male nor female while all children were taught to support and nurture one another and not necessarily compete against one another in the learning process. Learning was undergirded philosophically by a reverence for nature and a sense of humans’ responsibility to nature (Johnson et al. , 2005). The arrival of Europeans from 1492 onwards led to the imposition of a Eurocentric educational system which was underpinned by an Anglo-conformist assimilationist approach discussed above. This approach included educating Native Americans away from their cultures as a way of rendering them â€Å"less Native American† and more European American. The Anglo-conformist assimilationist approach in the formal education of Native Americans has left many of them miseducated and quite confused about their cultural identity. The political, economic and social impact of the European aim of Europeanizing, Christianizing and â€Å"civilizing† Native Americans through formal education are discussed at length in a paper presented by the author at the National Association of Native American Studies Conference in 2004. Fortunately, today, Native American leaders are successfully making efforts to reverse the adverse effects of the imposed Eurocentric educational system by synthesizing traditional Native American educational practices with European American practices. Works Citied Feagin, J. R. and Feagin, C. B. (2003). Racial and ethnic relations. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall Johnson, J. A. ; Dupuis, V. L. ; Musial, D. ; Hall, G. E. ; and Gollnick, D. M. (2005). Introduction to the foundations of American education. Boston, Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon. Mould, T. (2004). Choctaw tales. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi. Schaefer, R. T. (2004). Racial and ethnic groups. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Steven Tozer (2009) School and Society : Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. McGraw- Hil Publishing Company.

The Contemporary International System

The Contemporary International System The structure of the contemporary international system involves many different factors that influence how the world operates today. The international system is defined as the study of the interactions among the various actors that participate in international politics, including states, international organizations, nongovernmental organizations, sub-national entities, and individuals. The study of international relations aims to evaluate how countries interact within the political and social international system.Factors such as, technological change, shifts of national power and various changes in the environment influence today’s system and how we live on a day-to-day basis. History is another factor that must be recognized in the shaping of the world system. Events that occurred in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries have a great impact today, as we are able to make future projections based on historical trends. The operation and stru cture of the international system involves various social and political factors that shape the world we live in today.The shaping of the contemporary system was achieved through the concept of globalization. This idea is often referred to as the â€Å"shrinkage of the world† and has been made possible through the advancement in modern technology. Globalization is the process by which regional economies, societies, and cultures have become integrated through an international network of political ideas. Today, a nation’s technological capability is the main indicator of its power. Technology directly affects a nation’s economic growth though innovation.This growth then allows that country to produce military weapons for protection and could potentially throw off the balance of power between states. Technology and innovation can also determine a nation’s trade capacity, which can limit the amount a country can import and export. A nation with great trade cap abilities will experience international financial flows into their country, thus stimulating economic growth. Technology provides a framework for both the relative and absolute power between states and greatly impacts the structure of the international system.For example, if we evaluate the correlation of power and technology throughout history, we see that the United States and Germany experienced dramatic changes in their global position following the second industrial revolution, just as Great Britain had following the first industrial revolution. These powers have since failed to maintain their place at the forefront of technological innovation, and have faded from the international scene. Countries like Japan have been very technologically advanced for the last 50 years and have moved to the forefront of the international scene.The global scene that was once dominated by the United States, may have a new power due to Japan’s vast technological and innovative capabilities . Businesses have also globalized, as they are now able to interact with companies overseas with the click of a button. Since travel has become â€Å"easy† businesses are now able to meet face to face with their international partners on a regular basis. There are proper customs that people must follow when engaging in foreign business practices. For example, the exchange of business cards is a formal practice in countries like China and Japan.Foreign business associates may see it as a sign of disrespect if one is not educated on the proper customs of that country. The structure and operation of the international system is also influenced by the behaviors of the actors within that system. For centuries, the idea of the â€Å"state† was centered upon the idea of inclusion and exclusion. This idea became the centerpiece of national politics for centuries and is a major reason for conflicts within the system. After the French Revolution these states were formed on the th ree ideologies of realism, liberalism, and idealism.Karen Mingst and Jack Snyder define these ideologies and explain the assumptions behind the weaknesses that lead to misguided policies. Realism instills an appreciation of the role of power but warns that states will suffer if they overreach. The cooperation among states is a way to maximize each individual state’s security and often calls for â€Å"backing† during times of conflict. World War II resembles a realist idea as each state was drawn to fight to maximize its own security. Liberalism identifies the potential for democracies, but also notes that democracies can lead to tyrannies and the threat of a violent collapse.This arose after World War I in response to the inability to control and limit war within the international system. Lastly, Idealism stresses that a state’s values must reinforce any stable political order but recognizes that there is also a potential for conflict. Together these three persp ectives form the core of the contemporary international system. In order to fully understand the contemporary international system, we must first understand the historical trends in the state and international system.International Relations can be traced back to the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 where the modern state system was developed. This instituted the concept of sovereignty, which is defined as absolute and perpetual power invested in a commonwealth. This power does not exist in an individual, but in a state. In this, the leaders are limited by divine law and are â€Å"subject to the laws of God and nature. † This belief is still held today and believers attribute the legitimacy of the state to the consent of the people. After all, the â€Å"people† are the fundamental the source of all political power.In conclusion, the contemporary international system was shaped on the basis of globalization, the behaviors of the actors within the international system, and the evaluation of historical patterns. The world is constantly changing and evolving toward a more connected population. The widespread use of social media and continued advances in technology allow the population to connect with each other as if they were sitting in the same room. As we move toward this new era, we must identify these historical patterns in order to further improve our future international relations.

Breaking the hourglass (Evaluating time management’s importance) Essay

Time management, according to Marc Mancini (2003), is organizing one’s time in such a way that he or she will be more fulfilled, more confident, less stressed and less frustrated about his or her life dealings. Mancini (2003) pointed out the importance of managing time especially in this fast-paced environment where twenty fours hours is no longer enough for a day. How an individual manages his or her time is analogous to how he or she handles his or her life. Now that globalization has set in, time management is no longer an individualistic concern. Through the years, various business organizations have readily launched programs and trainings that would address time management problems. This situation can be attributed to the fact that efficient time utilization increases one’s productivity and has been instrumental in improving â€Å"service delivery (Politt, 2008).† Brooks and Schofield (1996) also implied that time management contributes to successful â€Å"product developments.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another importance of time management can be observed in balancing critical life endeavors to achieve one’s goals (Harvard Business School, 2005). It is a discipline of controlling one’s life through efficient allocation of time (Harvard Business School, 2005). When personal goals are achieved, this translates to satisfaction and high performance. This is most especially true as for the case of many employees who are constantly exposed to stressful and pressure-driven working environments. Time management can therefore aid executives in helping their subordinates realize and attain their personal goals via creating more flexible yet highly productive working arrangements and setting good examples (Line, 2002)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Darryl Davis (2003) also asserted that time management is more of an attitude-related issue than plain technical task. Time management is an issue of one’s willingness to utilize time more efficiently. It is a matter of creating concrete decisions in terms of prioritizing tasks and establishing attainable work schedules. With this regard, effective time management and positive outlook enable employees to experience a balanced life (Davis, 2003). Business companies, in return, can maximize their potentials.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ruth Klein (2005) also supported Davis’ contentions, stating that balancing priorities requires full determination to execute all the planned changes. These changes should be then incorporated in a serious time management effort (Klein, 2005). Time is so precious that if one is able to spend his or her time wisely through effective and efficient time management, it is as same as keeping gold bars in a vault. They say time is gold, but the truth is time is life itself. People live their lives by the ticking of the clock. Time also determines the success and failures of many companies. Under this context, time presents a double-edged sword. It can be an asset and at the same time, a liability. Therefore, it is highly important for individuals and business organizations alike to establish efficient time management. Time management ensures that tasks are properly executed. Likewise, this also contributes to achieving balance in one’s professional and personal endeavors. Reference List Brooks, B. and Schofield, N. (1996). Time-to-market: time equals money—but where does it   Ã‚   all go?. World Class Design to Manufacture. 2 (6), 4 Harvard Business School (2005). Time management: increase your personal productivity and    effectiveness. Massachusetts: Harvard Business School Publishing. Davis, D. (2003). How to become a power agent in real estate. New York: Mc-Graw Hill Companies, Inc. Klein, R. (2005). Time management secrets for working women: getting organized to get the most out of each day. Illinois: Sourcebooks, Inc. Line, M (2002). How Should Managers Spend Their Time? Part 2. Library Management. 23   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1./2), 101-102 Politt, D. (2008). ISS rises to the challenge of effective HR Management. Human Resource   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Management International Digest. 16 (2), 34-35 Mancini, M. (2003). Time Management. New York: Mc-Graw Hill Companies, Inc.

It Is Not the Power but Fear of Loosing

â€Å"It is not power that corrupts but fear. Fear of losing power corrupts those who wield it and fear of scourge of power corrupts those who are subject to it†. (Aung San Suu Kyi’s speech on Freedom from Fear) â€Å"Power has only one duty –to secure the social welfare of the people† Disraeli Benjamin. However, the reality is somewhat different. History has led us to conclusions where those in power dominated over the weaker ones and used their supremacy to carry out immoral actions.Keeping such views under consideration, the norm that power, the authority to rule over and influence a group, tends to corrupt an individual as power brings an individual closer to his desires and grants him unquestionable authority. What is of more significance in corrupting a person is the fear of losing the power, the influence that one holds because fear takes away the ability to discriminate between right and wrong which results in immorality of actions.Humans act close to the theory of opportunism, and are motivated by self-interests without considering the values of their actions. Therefore, it is obvious that when one attains power, the person is attracted towards material necessities since being in power brings a person, closer to the fulfillment of his desires. The influence of being powerful allows people to manipulate the circumstances to suit their own needs. It is important to relate to William Jefferson in this scenario. W.Jefferson is a former American congressman who has been included in CREW’S report 2006 (Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington  (CREW) is a  nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization  that describes itself as â€Å"dedicated to promoting ethics and accountability in government and public life by targeting government officials – regardless of party affiliation – who sacrifice the common good to special interests) as being a corrupt politician. Jefferson has been accused for getting invol ved in attaining financial benefits through illegal means.For instance, Jefferson accepted bribes from multiple firms in exchange, introduced the firm to Congressmen and other business officials and used his influence as a member of congress to support those firms in their corporate goals. The bribe received was used to finance Jefferson family business. However, members of the congress as Jefferson may fear the time mandate since they are appointed for a definite period of time after which they might not remain in power.Such a fear makes an individual to think about would the person have enough with themselves once they do not hold power to live a good life. Thus, a person based on the concept of opportunism, would try to make as much wealth as possible within the time span, keeping in consideration that once out of power, the opportunity to accumulate wealth would no longer be available. The word â€Å"power† is often interpreted in terms of a person, having unquestionable authority. The person who holds power may not be answerable to anyone and therefore may enjoy supremacy.Such individual creates a cult of personality and thus earn themselves, honorable titles to further exaggerate their influence. Within this notion of supremacy and unquestionable authority, individuals tend to waiver towards the path of corruption in order to maintain their influence. There are countless examples where leaders such as Stalin have been criticized for killing thousands of innocent people and pursuing other actions that by no means justify themselves. Stalin ruled as a dictator, with absolute power.Was it the unquestionable authority acting behind the misdeeds of Stalin? What is important here to consider is the force acting behind Stalin, the force which historians titled as insecurity? People had started to question his authority and showed criticism towards his five years plan that was developed to enhance economic potential. Further, members from his own party st arted to criticize Stalin’s leadership. Considering the rising oppositions, Stalin passed a law which levied a death penalty on anyone who was found plotting against the government.This law was just the beginning of the great purges that Stalin later carried out to secure his position. The purges include the trial of sixteen, trial of seventeen and trial of twenty one and the common element of all these trials was the execution of all the members who were rising against Stalin. The intensity of the fears he had developed turned clear with the assassination of Sergei Kirov. Sergei Kirov used to be a close supporter of Stalin and Stalin treated Kirov as his son.However, when Kirov refused to conform to Stalin’s authority, he was eliminated just as all the others before him. Later, a constitution, which reinforced his political position, was passed that was to prevent uprisings in the future. Although this allowed Stalin to regain his political strength but that came at t he expense of economic downfall, weakened army and loss of numerous lives. Thus, what seems to be the consequences of unquestionable authority in reality sneaks out of fear that developed in Stalin to counter his oppositions to reinforce his supremacy. To come under siege†¦. was the inevitable fate of power† Frank Herbert, Dune Messiah. However, when one fears of losing the authority and influence, such people are no more concerned of morality of their behavior, and all of their actions are directed towards securing the authoritative place. Fear is a very strong force which exists in nature of the living being. It can and does produce alternate behavioral phenomenon in not just the human kind but also across other kingdoms; certain kinds of female snake would eat their own eggs because of the fear of an attack.Lizards cut-off their own tails when a predator attacks to distract it while it escapes. These traits have been described by scientists as characteristics conferrin g an advantage and allowing them to survive. Man, nature’s most evolved product, obviously possesses a similar in-built survival instinct which has enabled it to dominate nature’s landscape since it came into existence especially with its enhanced and complex social ability. Imagine a situation in which a group of people is under attack. Would they hurt or kill the intruders or would they be nice to them? NO.They would definitely attack the intruders to protect their power and authority even at the expense of immorality found in their actions. This is genuinely supported by the incidents that occurred in Musharraf’s regime. The early years of his rule witnessed calmness in terms of law and order of the country. However, what became the turning point of his regime was the fear, he developed when the circumstances turned against him and his presidency came under threat after the Lal Mosque incident. His actions were no more bounded by constitutional laws and what mattered to him was the maintenance of power.The illegal deposition of chief justice of Pakistan and attacks on judiciary in which several protestors were tortured, contest for presidency while still holding the status of army chief in 2007 and attack on a channel’s headoffice are examples of incidents where, to maintain power, a leader as Musharraf did not remain concern whether his actions were justified or not. Apart from this, fear can result in alternate behavioral phenomenon as mentioned earlier in the text. This might result in a complete different response to a situation by an individual under certain circumstances.The historical event that took place in Egypt just before the birth of Moses is a demonstration of the same phenomenon. The pharaoh of Egypt feared losing his power at the hands of the growing number of Israelites. His fears aggravated when a group of astronomers informed the pharaoh that a male Israelite child would bear who would throw the pharaoh’ s kingdom. Keeping in consideration the patriarchal societies that have persisted for long, pharaoh ordered all the new born male children to be murdered. This was certainly not normal.In societies such as Egypt, where male dominated every sphere of life and where they were ranked far above women, it was the fear of losing his power that caused the pharaoh to act even against the conventions of the Egyptian society. In relation to the text, it is evident that corruption does not branch out of power itself. Rather it is the fear, the thought of losing the superiority and charisma that one has developed over time, which leads a person towards unjustifiable means to protect and maintain his authority.The struggle to maintain power out of the fear of losing it has led to disastrous consequences for the humanity over the years. What influential people need to consider now is that though a lot of damage has been done, it is time to consolidate. Accepting the temporary nature of power and carrying out the assigned responsibilities that the authoritative position endorse one with would allow the humanity to be protected against ill consequences. Work Cited â€Å"Benjamin Disraeli and the Two Nation Divide. †Ã‚  The Victorian Web: An Overview. Web. 14 Mar. 2012. http://www. victorianweb. org/authors/disraeli/diniejko3. tml Pakistan Weekly. â€Å"Musharraf Trial. †Ã‚  Project. Web. 14 Mar. 2012. http://musharraftrial. net/ Ariela Pelaia. â€Å"The Passover (Pesach)A  Story. †Ã‚  About. com Judaism. Web. 9 Mar. 2012. http://judaism. about. com/od/holidays/a/The-Passover-Pesach-Story. htm â€Å"Stalin's Russia. †Ã‚  ThinkQuest. Oracle Foundation. Web. 11 Mar. 2012. . John Simkin†The Great Purge. †Ã‚  Spartacus Educational. Web. 11 Mar. 2012. . Dr. Lawrence Britt†A  Fourteen Defining Characteristics Of Fascism.   A  Fourteen Defining Characteristics Of Fascism. Web. 06 Mar. 2012. ;http://www. rense. com/general37/char. htm;. â€Å"Hitler, Stalin and Macbeth. †Ã‚  Angelfire. com. Web. 06 Mar. 2012. ;http://www. angelfire. com/ma/totalitarianism/essay1. html;. Crew Org. â€Å"Beyond Delay. †Ã‚  Citizenforethics. org. Web. 13 Mar. 2012. ;http://www. citizensforethics. org/page/-/PDFs/Reports/Most%20;. Doug,†The Trouble WithA  Power. †Ã‚  Japan and Korea: Life, Language and Religion. Web. 14 Mar. 2012. ;http://japanlifeandreligion. com/2010/11/07/the-trouble-with-power/;.